Shingles is a viral infection that results from the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), the same virus that causes chickenpox. It typically affects a single sensory nerve ganglion and the skin surface that the nerve supplies.

Anyone who has had chickenpox can later develop shingles.

In fact, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), an estimated 1 in 3 people in the United States develop shingles during their lifetime.

However, a person can only develop shingles if they have had chickenpox or exposure to the virus that causes it. This virus can lie dormant for years.

Most adults with the dormant virus never develop shingles, but for some, the virus reactivates several times.

Shingles is most common after the age of 50 years, but it can appear at any age if a person has previously had chickenpox.

In this article, learn more about shingles, including symptoms, complications, and treatments.

Symptoms

Shingles usually affects one side of the body. This is most often the waist, chest, abdomen, or back. Symptoms can also appear on the face and in the eyes, mouth, ears. The virus can also affect some internal organs.

Shingles typically affects a single sensory nerve ganglion near the spinal cord, called a dorsal root ganglion. This is why the symptoms occur in specific areas of the body, rather than all over it. The pain results from nerve involvement, rather than the rash itself.

In fact, some people have pain but no rash. Others, meanwhile, may have a rash with pain that is accompanied by other symptoms, such as fever, chills, or headache.

Symptoms can vary in nature, depending on where on the body they appear.

Common symptoms

Some of the most common symptoms of shingles include:

• a constant dull, burning, or gnawing pain, or a sharp, stabbing pain that comes and goes
• a skin rash that resembles a chickenpox rash but only affects certain areas
• fluid-filled blisters that develop as part of the rash

Symptoms on the body

A blistering skin rash may appear in one or more distinct bands with sensory nerves of the skin, called dermatomes.

Common locations for this include:

• the chest
• the abdomen
• the back
• around the waist

It usually occurs only on one side of the body.

The location of the symptoms will depend on which dermatome distribution the virus affects.

Facial symptoms

If the rash affects the face, symptoms usually appear on one side only — usually around one eye and the forehead.

They can include:

• pain over the affected dermatome
• a rash
• muscle weakness
• headache

Eye symptoms

If the virus affects an ophthalmic nerve, it means that a person has herpes zoster ophthalmicus.

This can cause pain, redness, and swelling in and around the eye, as well as temporary or permanent loss of vision.

Ear symptoms

Shingles can also occur in or around the ear, leading to problems with balance and hearing, as well as muscle weakness on the affected side of the face.

These changes can be long term or even permanent. A person who develops symptoms in or around the ears and eyes should seek immediate medical attention to reduce the risk of complications.

Mouth symptoms

If shingles affects the mouth, a person may experience:

• facial tenderness
• pain in the mouth
• toothache
• lesions in hard and soft palate tissues

The pain and discomfort of these symptoms can make it difficult to eat or drink.

Internal shingles

Shingles can also affect the internal organs. There will not be a rash, but other problems can arise.

For example, researchers have found evidence of shingles in the digestive system, which can lead to gastrointestinal dysfunction, and in the arteries in the brain, which may increase the risk of stroke and dementia.

Other symptoms

There may also be other symptoms, including:

• fever
• fatigue
• chills
• headache
• upset stomach

Symptom progression

Symptoms typically progress as follows:

• Pain, tingling, numbness, and itching start to affect a specific part of the skin.
• After up to 2 weeks, a rash appears.
• Red blotches and itchy, fluid-filled blisters develop and continue to do so for 3-5 days.
• The blisters may merge, forming a solid red band that looks similar to a severe burn. The gentlest touch may be painful.
• Inflammation may affect the soft tissue under and around the rash.
• After 7–10 days, the blisters gradually dry up and form scabs or crusts. As the blisters disappear, they may leave minor scarring.

Shingles usually lasts around 2–4 weeks. It is contagious until the blisters dry up and crust over.

Most people will only have an episode of shingles once, but it can recur in some people.

Complications

Rarely, complications can arise — especially in people with an impaired immune system.

Possible complications of shingles include:

• postherpetic neuralgia (PHN)
• inflammation of the brain or spinal cord, increasing the risk of stroke, encephalitis, and meningitis
• eye and vision problems
• weakness
• problems with balance and hearing
• damage to blood vessels, which could lead to stroke
• pneumonia

According to the CDC, around 10–18% of people who have shingles will develop PHN, a long term complication wherein the pain of a shingles rash lasts long beyond the rash itself.

It is more likely to occur if a person develops shingles after the age of 40 years, and the risk continues to increase with age.

In people with weak immune systems

People with a weakened immune system will have a higher risk of developing shingles and of experiencing severe symptoms and complications.

This include people who:

• have cancer, especially leukemia or lymphoma
• have HIV
• have undergone an organ transplant
• are taking medications to suppress the immune system, including chemotherapy drugs

These people should seek medical attention as soon as possible if they have concerns about shingles-related symptoms.

Is shingles contagious?

It is not possible to directly transmit shingles to another person. However, a person who has never had chickenpox can contract VZV by coming into direct contact with the fluid in the blisters of a person who currently has shingles.

If this happens and the person has not received vaccination against chickenpox, they would develop chickenpox first, not shingles.

Shingles does not spread through coughing or sneezing. Only direct contact with fluid from the blisters can spread the virus. Therefore, covering the blisters reduces the risk of contagion.

It is important to note that the virus is only active from when the blisters first appear to when they dry up and crust over. Transmission is not possible before the blisters develop and after the crusts form. If a person does not develop blisters, the virus cannot spread in the traditional sense.

Taking the following precautions can help prevent the transmission of the virus:

• Cover the rash.
• Wash the hands often.
• Avoid touching or scratching the rash.

It is also important to avoid contact with:

• infants who are preterm or have a low birth weight
• pregnant women who have never had chickenpox or the vaccine for it
• those with a weakened immune system

Treatment

A doctor may prescribe antiviral drugs to stop the virus from multiplying.

Antiviral treatment

Antiviral treatment can help:

• reduce the severity and duration of symptoms
• prevent complications from developing
• lower the risk of the rash coming back

Managing symptoms

Tips for managing symptoms include:

• using pain relief medication
• reducing stress as much as possible
• eating regular, nutritious meals
• getting some gentle exercise
• wearing loose fitting clothes, for comfort

To relieve itching, the CDC recommend:

• applying calamine lotion
• taking a lukewarm, oatmeal bath
• placing a cool, damp washcloth on the blisters

Most people will recover with home treatment, but a person should seek medical help if other symptoms appear, such as a fever. Around 1–4% of people will need to spend time in the hospital due to complications.

Breast cancer is the most common invasive cancer in women and the second leading cause of cancer death in women after lung cancer.

Advances in screening and treatment for breast cancer have improved survival rates dramatically since 1989. According to the American Cancer Society (ACS), there are more than 3.1 million breast cancer survivors in the United States. The chance of any woman dying from breast cancer is around 1 in 38 (2.6%).

Awareness of the symptoms and the need for screening are important ways of reducing the risk. In rare instances, breast cancer can also affect men, but this article will focus on breast cancer in women. 

Symptoms

The first symptoms of breast cancer usually appear as an area of thickened tissue in the breast or a lump in the breast or an armpit.

Other symptoms include:

• pain in the armpits or breast that does not change with the monthly cycle
• pitting or redness of the skin of the breast, similar to the surface of an orange
• a rash around or on one of the nipples
• discharge from a nipple, possibly containing blood
• a sunken or inverted nipple
• a change in the size or shape of the breast
• peeling, flaking, or scaling of the skin on the breast or nipple

Most breast lumps are not cancerous. However, women should visit a doctor for an examination if they notice a lump on the breast.

Stages

A doctor stages cancer according to the size of the tumor and whether it has spread to lymph nodes or other parts of the body.

There are different ways of staging breast cancer. One way is from stage 0–4, with subdivided categories at each numbered stage. Descriptions of the four main stages are listed below, though the specific substage of a cancer may also depend on other specific characteristics of the tumor, such as HER2 receptor status.

• Stage 0: Known as ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), the cells are limited to within the ducts and have not invaded surrounding tissues.
• Stage 1: At this stage, the tumor measures up to 2 centimeters (cm) across. It has not affected any lymph nodes, or there are small groups of cancer cells in the lymph nodes.
• Stage 2: The tumor is 2 cm across, and it has started to spread to nearby nodes, or is 2–5 cm across and has not spread to the lymph nodes.
• Stage 3: The tumor is up to 5 cm across, and it has spread to several lymph nodes or the tumor is larger than 5 cm and has spread to a few lymph nodes.
• Stage 4: The cancer has spread to distant organs, most often the bones, liver, brain, or lungs.

Causes

After puberty, a woman’s breast consists of fat, connective tissue, and thousands of lobules. These are tiny glands that produce milk for breastfeeding. Tiny tubes, or ducts, carry the milk toward the nipple.

Cancer causes the cells to multiply uncontrollably. They do not die at the usual point in their life cycle. This excessive cell growth causes cancer because the tumor uses nutrients and energy and deprives the cells around it.

Breast cancer usually starts in the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply them with milk. From there, it can spread to other parts of the body.

Risk factors

The exact cause of breast cancer remains unclear, but some risk factors make it more likely. It is possible to prevent some of these risk factors.

1. Age

The risk of breast cancer increases with age. At 20 years, the chance of developing breast cancer in the next decade is 0.06%. By the age of 70 years, this figure goes up to 3.84%.

2. Genetics

Women who carry certain mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have a higher chance of developing breast cancer, ovarian cancer, or both. People inherit these genes from their parents.

Mutations in the TP53 gene also have links to increased breast cancer risk.

If a close relative has or has had breast cancer, a person’s chance of developing breast cancer increases.

Current guidelines recommend that people in the following groups seek genetic testing:

• those with a family history of breast, ovarian, fallopian tube, or peritoneal cancer
• those in whose ancestry there is a history of breast cancer related to BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutations, for example, people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry

3. A history of breast cancer or breast lumps

Women who have previously had breast cancer are more likely to have it again than those who have no history of the disease.

Having some types of noncancerous breast lump increases the chance of developing cancer later on. Examples include atypical ductal hyperplasia or lobular carcinoma in situ.

Individuals with a history of breast, ovarian, fallopian tube, or peritoneal cancer should ask their doctors about genetic testing.

4. Dense breast tissue

Women with more dense breasts are more likely to receive a diagnosis of breast cancer.

5. Estrogen exposure and breastfeeding

Extended exposure to estrogen appears to increase the risk of breast cancer.

This could be due to a person starting their periods earlier or entering menopause at a later than average age. Between these times, estrogen levels are higher.

Breastfeeding, especially for over 1 year, appears to reduce the chance of developing breast cancer. This is possibly due to the drop in estrogen exposure that follows pregnancy and breastfeeding.

6. Body weight

Women who become overweight or develop obesity after menopause may also have a higher chance of developing breast cancer, possibly due to increased estrogen levels. High sugar intake may also be a factor.

7. Alcohol consumption

A higher rate of regular alcohol consumption appears to play a role in breast cancer development.

According to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), studies have consistently found that women who consume alcohol have a higher risk of breast cancer than those who do not. Those who drink moderate to heavy levels of alcohol have a higher risk than light drinkers.

8. Radiation exposure

Undergoing radiation treatment for a different cancer may increase the risk of developing breast cancer later in life.

9. Hormone treatments

According to the NCI, studies have shown that oral contraceptives may slightly increase the risk of breast cancer

According to the ACS, studies have found that hormone replacement therapy (HRT), specifically estrogen-progesterone therapy (EPT), is related to an increased risk of breast cancer.

Cosmetic implants and breast cancer survival

A 2013 review found that women with cosmetic breast implants who received a diagnosis of breast cancer also had a higher risk of dying from the disease.

This could be due to the implants masking cancer during screening or because the implants bring about changes in breast tissue.

However, a 2015 review published in Aesthetic Surgery Journal found that having cosmetic breast implant surgery did not increase the risk of breast cancer.

Scientists need to carry out more research to confirm the link.

Types

There are several different types of breast cancer, including:

• Ductal carcinoma: This begins in the milk duct and is the most common type.
• Lobular carcinoma: This starts in the lobules.

Invasive breast cancer occurs when the cancer cells break out from inside the lobules or ducts and invade nearby tissue. This increases the chance of cancer spreading to other parts of the body.

Noninvasive breast cancer develops when the cancer remains inside its place of origin and has not yet spread. However, these cells can sometimes progress to invasive breast cancer.

Diagnosis

A doctor often diagnoses breast cancer as the result of routine screening or when a woman approaches her doctor after detecting symptoms.

Several diagnostic tests and procedures help to confirm a diagnosis.

Breast exam

The doctor will check the breasts for lumps and other symptoms.

During the examination, the person may need to sit or stand with their arms in different positions, such as above their head or by their sides.

Imaging tests

Several tests can help detect breast cancer.

Mammogram: This is a type of X-ray that doctors commonly use during an initial breast cancer screening. It produces images that can help a doctor detect any lumps or abnormalities.

A doctor will usually follow any suspicious results with further testing. However, mammography sometimes shows a suspicious area that turns out not to be cancer.

Ultrasound: This scan uses sound waves to help a doctor differentiate between a solid mass and a fluid-filled cyst.

MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) combines different images of the breast to help a doctor identify cancer or other abnormalities. A doctor may recommend an MRI as a follow-up to a mammogram or ultrasound. Doctors sometimes use them as a screening tool for those at higher risk of breast cancer.

Biopsy

In a biopsy, the doctor extracts a sample of tissue and sends it for laboratory analysis.

This shows whether the cells are cancerous. If they are, a biopsy indicates which type of cancer has developed, including whether or not the cancer is hormone sensitive.

Diagnosis also involves staging the cancer to establish:

• the size of a tumor
• how far it has spread
• whether it is invasive or noninvasive

Staging provides a picture of a person’s chances of recovery and their ideal course of treatment.

Treatment

Treatment will depend on several factors, including:

• the type and stage of the cancer
• the person’s sensitivity to hormones
• the age, overall health, and preferences of the individual

The main treatment options include:

radiation therapy

• surgery
• biological therapy, or targeted drug therapy
• hormone therapy
• chemotherapy

Factors affecting the type of treatment a person has will include the stage of the cancer, other medical conditions, and their individual preference.

Surgery

If surgery is necessary, the type will depend on both the diagnosis and individual preference. Types of surgery include:

Lumpectomy: This involves removing the tumor and a small amount of healthy tissue around it.

A lumpectomy can help prevent the spread of the cancer. This may be an option if the tumor is small and easy to separate from its surrounding tissue.

Mastectomy: A simple mastectomy involves removing the lobules, ducts, fatty tissue, nipple, areola, and some skin. In some types, a surgeon will also remove the lymph nodes and muscle in the chest wall.

Sentinel node biopsy: If breast cancer reaches the sentinel lymph nodes, which are the first nodes to which a cancer can spread, it can spread into other parts of the body through the lymphatic system. If the doctor does not find cancer in the sentinel nodes, then it is usually not necessary to remove the remaining nodes.

Axillary lymph node dissection: If a doctor finds cancer cells in the sentinel nodes, they may recommend removing several lymph nodes in the armpit. This can prevent the cancer from spreading.

Reconstruction: Following mastectomy, a surgeon can reconstruct the breast to look more natural. This can help a person cope with the psychological effects of breast removal.

The surgeon can reconstruct the breast at the same time as performing a mastectomy or at a later date. They may use a breast implant or tissue from another part of the body.

Radiation therapy

A person may undergo radiation therapy around a month after surgery. Radiation involves targeting the tumor with controlled doses of radiation that kill any remaining cancer cells.

Chemotherapy

A doctor may prescribe cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs to kill cancer cells if there is a high risk of recurrence or spread. When a person has chemotherapy after surgery, doctors call it adjuvant chemotherapy.

Sometimes, a doctor may choose to administer chemotherapy before surgery to shrink the tumor and make its removal easier. Doctors call this neoadjuvant chemotherapy.

Hormone blocking therapy

Doctors use hormone blocking therapy to prevent hormone sensitive breast cancers from returning after treatment. Hormone therapy may be used to treat estrogen receptor (ER)-positive and progesterone receptor (PR)-positive cancers.

They usually administer hormone blocking therapy after surgery but might sometimes use it beforehand to shrink the tumor.

Hormone blocking therapy may be the only option for people who are not suitable candidates for surgery, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy.

Doctors may recommend a person has hormone therapy for 5–10 years after surgery. However, the treatment will not affect cancers that are not sensitive to hormones.

Examples of hormone blocking therapy medications may include:

• tamoxifen
• aromatase inhibitors
• ovarian ablation or suppression
• Goserelin, which is a luteinizing hormone-releasing agonist drug that suppresses the ovaries

Hormone treatment may affect fertility.

Biological treatment

Targeted drugs can destroy specific types of breast cancer. Examples include:

• trastuzumab (Herceptin)
• lapatinib (Tykerb)
• bevacizumab (Avastin)

Treatments for breast and other cancers can have severe adverse effects. When deciding on a treatment, people should discuss the potential risks with a doctor and look at ways to minimize the side effects.

Outlook

A person’s outlook with breast cancer depends on the staging. Early detection and treatment usually lead to a positive outlook.

According to the ACS, a person who receives treatment for stage 0 or stage 1 breast cancer has a 99% chance of surviving for at least 5 years after being diagnosed, when compared to women who do not have cancer.

If breast cancer reaches stage 4, the chance of surviving another 5 years reduces to around 27%.

Regular checks and screening can help detect symptoms early. Women should discuss their options with a doctor.

Regular screening

There are several different guidelines for how often women should have breast cancer screening.

The American College of Physicians (ACP) recommend that women aged 40–49 years with an average risk of breast cancer should discuss the benefits and risks of regular screenings with a doctor.

Between 50 and 74 years of age, women who have an average risk should undertake screenings every 2 years. Beyond 75 years of age, doctors only recommend screenings for women with a life expectancy of 10 or more years.

The ACS suggest that women of average risk can choose to have yearly scans from the age of 40 years onward. Those who have not should start annual screening at 45 years of age. They may decide to switch to screenings every other year when they reach 55 years of age.

The American College of Radiologists recommend screenings every year, starting from 40 years of age.

Despite the different recommendations, most experts agree that women should talk to their doctors about breast cancer screening from 40 years of age onward.

Prevention

There is no way to prevent breast cancer. However, certain lifestyle decisions can significantly reduce the risk of breast cancer as well as other types.

These include:

• avoiding excessive alcohol consumption
• following a healthful diet containing plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables
• getting enough exercise
• maintaining a healthy body mass index (BMI)

Women should consider their options for breastfeeding and the use of HRT following menopause, as these can also increase the risk.

Preventive surgery is also an option for women at high risk of breast cancer.

Everyone feels anxious from time to time, but people with anxiety disorders experience frequent and severe worry that disrupts their normal life.

What is anxiety?

Feeling anxiety before a specific event, such as a test, is normal.

Usually, anxiety is temporary. But someone with an anxiety disorder experiences regular, severe worry. The anxiety may be debilitating and prevent them from doing their normal activities.

Anxiety disorders are common. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, approximately 19.1% of adults in the United States have an anxiety disorder.

Types of anxiety disorder

Agoraphobia

Agoraphobia is the fear of space where it is difficult to escape or receive help if something goes wrong.People with this type of phobia tend to avoid specific places or situations. For example, they might avoid crowds or public transport. Some people may become housebound in severe cases.

Generalized anxiety disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) involves constant worrying over everyday things. The anxiety might have no clear cause or trigger. This chronic condition can cause trouble sleeping, irritability, and muscle tension.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) causes distressing, intrusive thoughts that a person may manage by carrying out repetitive behaviors that provide temporary relief.

Examples include compulsively washing the hands in fear of contamination. If a person does not perform the compulsion, they may feel more anxious as a result.

Phobias

Agoraphobia is one type of phobia, or fear. However, many other phobias exist. Some are common and relatively mild, such as a fear of spiders, or arachnophobia. Others may be more disruptive to a person’s life.

Panic disorder

Those with panic disorder are prone to panic attacks. These panic attacks cause physical symptoms similar to a heart attack.

Post-traumatic stress disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after a person experiences trauma. For example, someone may develop PTSD after an accident, assault, or a natural disaster.In some people, symptoms are temporary. But others will experience PTSD over long periods.

Selective mutism

People who have this rare disorder avoid speaking, despite having the ability to do so. Those with selective mutism are typically very shy. They fear social judgment and embarrassment.

Separation anxiety

Separation anxiety is common in children, but adults also experience it. People with this type of anxiety disorder have an intense fear of separation from the people who are close to them in their lives.

Social anxiety disorder

People with this anxiety disorder have an intense fear of social interactions. They typically fear social humiliation and worry about judgment from others.

What is an anxiety attack?

An anxiety or panic attack involves a sudden burst of intense anxiety that produces physical symptoms. The symptoms might include difficulty breathing, chest pain, and dizziness.

Some people use the terms anxiety attack and panic attack interchangeably. Panic attacks can last as long as anywhere from 5–30 minutes.

Having a panic attack is frightening, and people who experience them are usually fearful of triggering another. Some people go to great lengths to avoid certain situations that might produce another episode.

Symptoms of a panic attack

Symptoms of a panic attack are not life threatening despite their intensity. They include:

• sweating
• shaking
• trembling
• dizziness
• panting and shortness of breath
• nausea
• heart palpitations
• increased heart rate
• depersonalization
• hot and cold flushes

Some people experience these kinds of symptoms with their regular anxiety. What makes a panic attack different is how intense and sudden the physical sensations are.

Causes of anxiety

The causes of anxiety are complex. Some potential causes of an anxiety disorder might include:

• Environment: A person’s life experiences, upbringing, and home environment have a significant impact on whether someone develops anxiety. A 2014 study suggests that some parenting styles increase the risk of anxiety disorders.
• Genetics: People with a family history of anxiety disorders are more likely to develop one.
• Health conditions: Some health problems might cause anxiety symptoms, such as thyroid or heart conditions.

Females are also more likely than males to develop an anxiety disorder.

Treatments

There are effective treatment options for anxiety disorders. The type of treatment will vary depending on the anxiety disorder.

Some anxiety treatments include:

Psychotherapy

Talk therapies, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), are a standard treatment for anxiety disorders. CBT teaches individuals with anxiety to approach their anxious feelings and thoughts differently. CBT can also involve exposure therapy for treating phobias, which means a person gradually and intentionally exposing themselves to their fear.

Medications

In some cases, medications, such as antidepressants and anti-anxiety medication, may help reduce the symptoms of an anxiety disorder. These are helpful for people who have severe symptoms.

A doctor may prescribe beta-blockers to someone with panic disorder. Beta-blockers can help with the physical symptoms of anxiety, such as rapid heartbeat and shaking.

Management

Some self-care strategies can help a person manage anxiety in their daily life. People with severe anxiety should not use these methods to replace help from a mental health professional.

Support groups

Support groups can provide people with anxiety a place to talk about their experiences with others who understand their condition. Additionally, being involved in spiritual groups that focus on compassion and forgiveness may help some people with anxiety.

Relaxation techniques

Activities that calm the nervous system can help ease anxiety, such as:

• spending time in nature
• meditation and mindfulness
• activities a person finds fun

Lifestyle changes

Substances such as caffeine and some nutritional deficiencies can make anxiety worse. Additionally, getting enough exercise and eating a nutrient-rich diet can help to reduce it.

A person with an anxiety disorder may feel some benefits from:

• reducing caffeine intake
• focusing on eating whole foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and fish
• getting regular exercise

Summary

Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and change, but anxiety disorders are highly disruptive conditions. There are many types of anxiety disorder, including PTSD, OCD, GAD, and phobias.

Treatment for an anxiety disorder might include a combination of therapy and medication. People should seek help for anxiety that regularly affects their normal life.

Alzheimer’s disease progressively degrades a person’s memory and cognitive abilities, often resulting in dementia. Amid efforts to find novel treatments for this disease, a recent breakthrough study by scientists from Japan shows that oxytocin―the hormone that we commonly know to induce feelings of love and well-being―can also effectively reverse some of the damage caused by amyloid plaques in the learning and memory center of the brain in an animal model of Alzheimer’s.

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive disorder in which the nerve cells (neurons) in a person’s brain and the connections among them degenerate slowly, causing severe memory loss, intellectual deficiencies, and deterioration in motor skills and communication. One of the main causes of Alzheimer’s is the accumulation of a protein called amyloid β (Aβ) in clusters around neurons in the brain, which hampers their activity and triggers their degeneration. Studies in animal models have found that increasing the aggregation of Aβ in the hippocampus―the brain’s main learning and memory center―causes a decline in the signal transmission potential of the neurons therein. This degeneration affects a specific trait of the neurons, called “synaptic plasticity,” which is the ability of synapses (the site of signal exchange between neurons) to adapt to an increase or decrease in signaling activity over time. Synaptic plasticity is crucial to the development of learning and cognitive functions in the hippocampus. Thus, Aβ and its role in causing cognitive memory and deficits have been the focus of most research aimed at finding treatments for Alzheimer’s.

Now, advancing this research effort, a team of scientists from Japan, has looked at oxytocin, a hormone conventionally known for its role in the female reproductive system and in inducing the feelings of love and well-being. “Oxytocin was recently found to be involved in regulating learning and memory performance, but so far, no previous study deals with the effect of oxytocin on Aβ-induced cognitive impairment. Realizing this.

Oxytocin is known to facilitate certain cellular chemical activities that are important in strengthening neuronal signaling potential and formation of memories, such as influx of calcium ions. Previous studies have suspected that Aβ suppresses some of these chemical activities. When the scientists artificially blocked these chemical activities, they found that addition of oxytocin addition to the hippocampal slices did not reverse the damage to synaptic plasticity caused by Aβ. Additionally, they found that oxytocin itself does not have any effect on synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus, but it is somehow able to reverse the ill―effects of Aβ.